Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2026 Sep 10. doi: 10.1007/s00127-026-03205-1. Online ahead of print.
ABSTRACT
PURPOSE: We aimed to study how the timing of incident maternal emotional disorders is associated with male offspring’s cognitive ability in early adulthood using cognitive test data from military conscription in a population-based cohort.
METHODS: We linked all males (conscripts) born in Denmark 1996-2001 to parental hospital records to identify anxiety or depression (emotional disorders). Linear regression assessed the association between the timing of the first maternal diagnosis (before, during, or after birth (0-1, 1-5, 6-17 years)) and cognitive ability measured at the Danish Conscription Board Examination 2014-2019. Paternal emotional disorders served as negative controls to differentiate maternal pregnancy exposures from genetic and postnatal influences.
RESULTS: The study included 119,387 males, with 9,959 (8.3%) having mothers diagnosed with emotional disorders. Exposed offspring had lower cognitive test scores (ranging from – 0.22 to -0.10 standard deviations (SD) lower than unexposed) at mean age 18, particularly if the mother was diagnosed during pregnancy (-0.22 SD, 95% CI: -0.36; -0.08). There was no difference when comparing incident diagnosis before/after vs. during pregnancy. Paternal emotional disorders were also linked to a lower cognitive test score, with more consistent associations across all time points (-0.18 to -0.14 SD lower than unexposed).
CONCLUSION: Maternal emotional disorders were overall associated with male offspring’s long-term cognitive ability. Paternal disorders showed similar associations. While the findings require cautious interpretation, the findings suggest a weak signal of a window of sensitivity for maternal disorders during gestation, with no equivalent signal for paternal disorders. We encourage similar studies with female offspring.
TRIAL REGISTRATION: The project was registered in OSF in July 2024 ( https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/SV7W4 ).
PMID:42720755 | DOI:10.1007/s00127-026-03205-1
