Cureus. 2025 Oct 6;17(10):e93949. doi: 10.7759/cureus.93949. eCollection 2025 Oct.
ABSTRACT
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder marked by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity, with significant genetic and environmental influences. Its heritability rate is estimated with genetic markers such as SLC6A3, DRD4, ADRA2A, COMT, DRD5, and SLC6A2 influencing dopamine and norepinephrine regulation. These markers may impact ADHD risk, subtypes, and treatment responses, potentially enabling pharmacogenetic insights into stimulant efficacy and adverse effects. Neurophysiological biomarkers, particularly EEG-derived theta/beta ratio, may enhance diagnostic precision by identifying ADHD-specific cortical activity. Quantitative EEG (qEEG) and biofeedback further aid in treatment monitoring. Non-invasive biomarkers, including magnesium and zinc deficiencies, inflammatory cytokines like interleukin-6 (IL-6), and salivary markers, such as cortisol, alpha-amylase, and secretory immunoglobulins, expand ADHD diagnostic tools. Artificial intelligence (AI) may revolutionize ADHD management in the future with scalable tools like EEG-based motor analysis, eye-tracking systems, and wearable devices. AI-powered models, including socially assistive robots and hybrid algorithms, may enhance engagement and personalize therapy, particularly in underserved regions. Despite advancements, challenges remain in standardizing biomarkers, validating AI tools, and addressing ADHD heterogeneity. Future research should integrate genetic, neuroimaging, and AI-driven multi-modal approaches to improve diagnostics and optimize therapies. Holistic interventions, such as pharmacogenetics and magnesium supplementation, show promise for enhancing ADHD care. By uniting genetic, neurophysiological, and technological insights, these innovations pave the way for precise, accessible, and personalized ADHD management strategies.
PMID:41200630 | PMC:PMC12588396 | DOI:10.7759/cureus.93949
